Astronomy Laser Pointers - Cutting Edge Lasers Improve Astronomy Pointers Science

By Jim Bradley

The scientific community which has benefited the greatest from improvements in laser light and laser pointer technology is the field of astronomy. It seems there are no more perfect applications for high power laser pointers than to be used for research in the physics based world of astronomy. But how practical is the use of astronomy laser pointers? Does it provide legitimate scientific value, or is it merely a tool used to make research "cool" or "hip"? There has been much debate regarding laser use for astronomy based research in observatories throughout the globe.

If you are a laser hobbyist, or an astronomy enthusiast, you may be familiar with practical laser pointer functions that are ideal for night time studies. But what is it that a person should be looking for to determine if a specific laser pointer will be ideal for their astronomy needs? There are a few things to ponder before applying a laser to astronomy research, points which anyone considering using a handheld astronomy laser must contemplate.

First, where are you going to be using the astronomy lasers? If you are in an area that is relatively high in population, you may have to combat light pollution in order to see the night sky's constellations. If this is the case, you will need to obtain a high power astronomy laser pointer so that you can actually see the laser beam clearly despite the adverse conditions. We can take this a step further, if you know that you will require a bit higher power for your laser, then you may also want to consider utilizing a 532nm green laser pointer. Green astronomy lasers are the most commonly used laser pointer because of how bright the green laser beam appears to observers. The green beam is the brightest light frequency in the visible light spectrum, which means there is no laser beam that can appear brighter. Accordingly, green lasers are the most popular color wavelength for astronomy lasers.

Green lasers have a long history of use in space frontier organizations such as NASA, and continue to gain popularity amongst astronomers across the planet. The problem currently is that many scientific professionals are not properly trained in laser usage for astronomy applications, and this is cause for potential disaster. Now, if someone is using a 5mw green astronomy laser, there is very little danger to worry about. The beams output power is relatively low and that keeps everyone around safe.

If a high power astronomy laser is to be used, there is a bit more room for concern and precaution. The higher the output power of the laser beam, the brighter and stronger the beam will appear. This may be ideal for night based astronomy research, but if the beam becomes dispersed or used improperly it can spell disaster for the astronomy enthusiast or simply people who are present. There has been horror stories of astronomy laser pointers gone wrong which lead to large research grants being canceled.

So if astronomy laser pointers are your forte, be sure that you know what you are doing before you engage the powerful lasers. The use of a straight line of green laser light is unmatched by all other astronomers tools, and when a laser is attached to a telescope, astronomy becomes that much more exciting as well as educational. Some of the worlds largest and powerful observatories attach simple astronomy laser pointers to their scope's casing, allowing for consistent and solid beam output. Astronomy lasers are opening the door and people's eyes to the beauty of the universe and our milky way galaxy, be sure to shine with care and enjoy your astronomy lasers.

James has been involved with astronomy lasers since the scientific community first incorporated the tools into global research several years ago. His preferred laser retailer provides professional astronomy laser pointers here at http://www.thinklasers.com

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The Black Space Experience

By William Sutherland

The roots of the black space experience date back some 8,500 years when the first lunar calendar was crafted from a bone. Like ancient peoples elsewhere in the world, Africans (sub-Saharan black peoples) “shared the same inspiration and awe of the stars” and “struggled to make sense of it [through] creativity and intelligence” [1] patiently taking “countless generations to watch, justify and map the heavens”[2] and define their relationship with them. According to Dr. Thebe Medupe, a prominent astronomer at the University of Cape Town and the South African Astronomical Observatory, “[Africans] shaped constellations out of stellar patterns and came up with stories about them, …constructed calendars to organize their lives and even erected stone alignments… to follow the sun’s ‘path’ throughout the year.”[3] It was for this reason that Bernard Harris, Jr., the first black astronaut to walk in space stated, “When we look at history itself, you realize that astronomy – the study of the stars – that whole origin… [was] being done by people from Africa. And now I get to fly amongst those same stars” when emphasizing the importance of knowing and understanding history – “If you don’t know where you are and where you came from, you’ll never know where you are going.”[4]

African societies dating back to the ancient times relied on “the stars to predict the likelihood of rain, so they could prepare the land”[5] for planting, for migration (e.g. the Bozo people of Mali “migrate along the delta of the Niger river when the Pleiades transit overhead and begin their fishing season when the Pleiades leave the night sky”[6]) and navigation as well as for determining points in time, leading to the construction of megalith (large stone) observatories and the development of lunar-based calendars, all of which were critical since for them, “knowledge about the movement of the stars [was] a matter of life and death.”[7]

Accordingly the Moon and the stars had a special place in African societies. In the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) “the Milky Way is called ‘God’s clock’ [since] it is orientated east-west during the wet season and… north-south during the middle of the dry season.[8] At the same time, in “central Nigeria… a strong correlation [is] observed between the tilt of the points on the crescent moon and rainfall. As points tilt to the right, dramatic increases in rain[fall occur and] as points tilt to the left, dramatic decreases in rainfall [occur].[9]

Two famous African megaliths that made use of astronomy are Nabta, built between 5500 B.C. and 3500 B.C. by Central African nomads in southern Egypt near the modern-day border with Sudan and Namoratunga II, which was erected in 300 B.C. (aligned to the 7 stars of the Borana calendar – Triangulum, Pleiades, Aldebarran, Belletrix, Orion, Saiph, and Sirius)[10] and stands near Kenya’s Lake Turkana. Based on archeological data, Nabta consisting of “stones aligned with the different rising positions of the Sun… (caused by the Earth’s rotation) [used] to determine the seasons”[11] is perhaps the oldest astronomical alignment in the world, 1,000 years older than Stonehenge. At the same time archeological finds indicate that the Mursi of Ethiopia and Kushites and Bambara of Sudan were also influenced by and “interested in horizon and zenith (sunrise and sunset) events”[12] as were the peoples inhabiting Benin, Togo, and Zimbabwe.

In Benin and Togo, “the Batamalimba people designed their houses such that their crossbeams [were] aligned to the equinox sunrise and sunset” while the Karanga people constructed “a chevron pattern bisected by the solstice Sun” in the Great Zimbabwe stone city that was built around A.D. 400 and completed about A.D. 1350 to mark “important astronomical seasonal events.”[13] In addition, the Pyramids of Meroë built in Kush (now part of Sudan) and the more than 1600 stone circles discovered to date in the lands comprising the Gambia, Senegal and Togo are likely further examples of African archaeoastronomy.

In conjunction with the construction of megaliths, African societies ranging from southern Africa to sub-Saharan northern Africa, also developed calendars based on the lunar cycle. The oldest such calendar, the Ishango bone, dating back to 6500 B.C. that “was found at the site of a fishing village on the shores of Lake Edward which borders the [Democratic Republic of] Congo (DRC) and Uganda”[14] and is believed to have been used for predicting tidal phenomena. At the same time, another early lunar calendar based on a series of concentric circles ranging in number from 29 to 30 was found in “certain caves in Tanzania.”[15]

Even today several African peoples use lunar calendars. Examples are the Borana of southern Ethiopia and northwest Kenya, the Mursi of Ethiopia, the Ngas of Nigeria, and the Dogon of Mali, each of whom either adds an extra month consisting of 11 days at the end of the year or a 33-day month at the end of each third year to compensate for the difference that arises from the 365.25 day solar year (period of time it takes the Earth to complete one revolution around the Sun) in which there are 12 lunar cycles (period of time ranging from the first rise of the new moon to the final setting of the full moon) consisting of 29.5 days each. The Ngas use the term “bergu” for each 29.5-day month and “gamwe” to describe the final 11 days that follow the 12th and last “bergu” of each year. In addition, some peoples in South Africa “still use the same word for month and moon”[16] because of their connotative relationship.

Because of their interest in the heavens and their attempt to create intelligible frameworks around them, Africans also developed myths and legends surrounding celestial bodies and constellations. “The Pleiades and Sirius figure largely in the star lore of the peoples of Mali and Ethiopia… The Milky Way… and Venus… are focused on all over Africa, while the Southern Cross is important to the Zulu, Sotho, and Tswana [peoples] of southern Africa and… recognized as a navigation constellation.”[17]

Examples of these African myths and legends are as follows: The Bushmen who inhabit southern Africa “believe the Milky Way was made by a Bushman girl who wished for a little light and threw wood ashes into the sky [creating] different colored stars by throwing different colored burning roots into the air. [There are also two other stories. One involves] two stars of the Southern Cross, Alpha and Gamma Crucis… The creator had two sons called Khanka and Khoma. One day the two boys went hunting with a family of lions, but the treacherous lions ate the boys. In his anger and despair, the creator made fire and hid it in a meteor disguised as an eland’s horn. The creator called down the meteor and it hit [and killed] the lion. [Afterwards the creator’s] heart was calmed and there was fire for everyone. Khanka and Khoma are Alpha Crucis and Gamma Crucis. [The next is about Pleiades and the three stars of the Orion Belt, in which] …seven daughters of the sky god (Pleiades) were married to a hunter. One evening [he] went hunting [for] zebras (the three stars of Orion’s Belt). He was such a bad hunter that his arrow missed, and because he was afraid of the nearby lion (Betelgeuse, another star) he left the arrow where it lay (now known as Orion’s sword). [Afterwards, being] …too embarrassed to [return] home to his wives because he did not have meat to bring to them, …he [stayed] out… in the cold as the star called Aldebaran.”[18]

In addition to merely studying astronomy, developing lunar calendars, and creating myths and legends about the heavens, Africans also exchanged information and ideas with Islamic scientists following the establishment of protected trade routes in the areas encompassing Mali, Mauritania and Senegal. The peak of this exchange occurred during the rule of the Ghana, Mali and Songhay empires (c. A.D. 1200-A.D. 1591) when Islamic traders traveled to African cities in search of gold, the economic standard of their lands after Iranian scholar, Ibn al-Faqih al-Hamadhani wrote in c. A.D. 900:

It is said that beyond the source of the Nile is darkness and beyond the darkness are waters which make the gold grow… to the town of Ghana is a three-months’ journey through deserts. In the country of Ghana gold grows in the sand as carrots do, and is plucked at sunrise.[19]

During the height of this trans-Saharan trade, Islamic scholars established learning centers and introduced the written language, resulting in the creation of thousands of African books pertaining to astronomy and science.

However, it was not until late in the 20th century, some two decades after the United States and the now defunct Soviet Union (USSR) had begun their manned space programs, that descendents of these early African astronomers actually made it into space, much in part due to the efforts of Luke Weathers (b. A.D. 1920), a black World War II veteran with a degree in science and biology and others who had “pressured the U.S. military to train a corps of black pilots at Tuskegee Institute in Alabama… to prove that black Americans… could handle the most challenging… jobs.”[20]

This led to June A.D. 1967 when another pilot, Major Robert H. Lawrence, Jr. (A.D. 1935-A.D. 1967) with over 2,500 flight hours behind him, successfully completed the Air Force’s Flight Test Pilot Training School at Edwards Air Force Base in California and was named the first African-American astronaut. “Though he never made it into space”[21] dying on December 8th when the F-104 Starfighter piloted by a trainee whom he was instructing crashed, Major Lawrence had participated in the Air Force’s Manned Orbiting Laboratory (MOL) Program, a project that “would eventually lead to today’s International Space Station.”[22]

Despite the setback, blacks were not going to be denied their place in space. Following the success of the Civil Rights movement, new opportunities emerged much in part due to improved education and equal opportunity chances. As a result greater numbers of blacks enrolled and were accepted into America’s space program.

History was made on September 18, A.D. 1980 when Arnaldo Tamayo Méndez (b. A.D. 1942), a Cuban of black-hispanic heritage was launched into space as part of the Soyuz 38 crew. “After docking with Salyut 6, Tamayo (a Cuban Air Force pilot) and [his partner Yuri] Romanenko (b. A.D. 1944) conducted experiments in an attempt to find [the cause] of space sickness, and… a cure.”[23] He spent 188 hours and 43 minutes in space before returning to Earth on September 26, A.D. 1980.

This was followed by the August 30, A.D. 1983 launch of Guion “Guy” Bluford (b. A.D. 1942), a U.S. Air Force Colonel who had majored in aerospace engineering and minored in laser physics, aboard the space shuttle Challenger on the STS-8 mission which lasted 145 hours. Upon entering space during the worlds’ first night launch, Guy Bluford became the first African-American astronaut to make the trip.

Afterwards Guy Bluford participated in three additional missions – STS-61-A (October 30-November 6, A.D. 1985 aboard Challenger), STS-39 (April 28-May 6, A.D. 1991 aboard Discovery), and STS-53 (December 2-December 9, A.D. 1992 aboard Discovery). During his career, Col. Bluford who retired from active space duty in 1993, amassed 28 days, 16 hours and 33 minutes in space. Since then Col. Bluford has been inducted into the International Space Hall of Fame (A.D. 1997) and “has spoken before many groups… where he serves as a role model,” all possible because his mother, a teacher, and father, an engineer, had encouraged him and his three brothers to “set their goals high” and because he ignored a school counselor’s advice to”learn a trade, since he was not college material.”[24]

The next black astronaut to make history was Dr. Mae Jemison (b. A.D. 1956), the daughter of a maintenance worker (her father) and teacher (her mother) who earned a BS in Chemical Engineering, a BA in African-American studies, and a doctorate in medicine. Notably, during her years in medical school and participation in the Peace Corps she had provided medical care to persons in Cuba, Kenya, Liberia, Sierra Leone, and Thailand.

When the space shuttle Endeavor was launched on September 12, A.D. 1992, Dr. Jemison became the first African-American woman in space. Following her 7 day, 22 hour, 30 minute mission aboard Endeavor as a mission specialist (STS-47 September 12-20, A.D. 1992), Jemison retired from space flight to found The Jemison Group “to research, develop and implement advanced technologies suited to the social, political, cultural and economic context of the individual, especially for the developing world.”[25] Yet despite her post NASA pursuits, Dr. Jemison in following the encouragement and support given by her parents, consistently encourages African-Americans to pursue scientific careers especially with the space program – “This is the one time when we can get in on the ground floor.”[26]

A third history making black astronaut was Dr. Bernard A. Harris, Jr. (b. A.D. 1956), a private pilot and flight surgeon with a doctorate in medical science and a master’s degree in biomedical science who had dreamed “to look down on the clouds” since he was 8. “I was watching what was happening with the space program, watching these guys go up… people called them American heroes. I wanted to be a hero too,” he declared when thinking back to the infancy of the U.S. space program.[27] On February 9, A.D. 1995, Dr. Harris became the first African-American to walk in space when he and astronaut Michael Foale (b. A.D. 1957) “made a five hour space walk to test thermal improvements in space suits and to hoist a 2,800 pound telescope that would aid… efforts to design [the] International Space Station.”[28] Afterwards, he reflected back to 1963, perhaps the most pivotal year in the Civil Rights movement (e.g. the march on Washington, D.C. where Martin Luther King, Jr. made his famous “I have a dream” speech in August, the Birmingham Church bombing a month later that martyred four young black girls, etc.) stating, “Those were some of the best times and worst times. Here on this planet we were fighting for human rights and at the same time we were sending men to the moon.”[29] Appropriately, Dr. Harris dedicated his space walk, which he described as “probably the most wonderful day of my life”[30] to “all African-Americans and to African American achievement.”[31]

During his astronaut career, Dr. Bernard Harris, Jr. took part in two missions – STS-55 (April 26-May 6, A.D. 1993 aboard Columbia as a mission specialist conducting “a variety of research in physical and life sciences”[32]) and STS-63 (February 2-11, A.D. 1995 aboard Discovery as payload commander) logging 18 days, 6 hours and 8 minutes in space. Like Bluford, Dr. Harris also serves as an inspiration encouraging “children of all races to follow his example – ‘Don’t be afraid to dream… Get… an education. Be willing to work hard. If you do these three things, there is nothing that you can’t do in life.’”[33]

In addition to the above-mentioned African-American astronauts, others have also pursued and made the journey to and from space. In the process, two – Ronald E. McNair, Ph.D. and Col. Michael A. Anderson, made the ultimate sacrifice – giving up their lives in quest of scientific exploration and discovery for the benefit of humanity. Summaries of these inspirational astronauts are listed below:

Lt. Col. Michael P. Anderson (A.D. 1959-A.D. 2003) amassed 24 days, 18 hours, and 8 minutes in space, participating in STS-89 (January 22-31, A.D. 1998 aboard Endeavor) and STS-107 (January 16-February 1, A.D. 2003 aboard Columbia). Tragically Lt. Col. Anderson lost his life when the “space shuttle Columbia and her crew perished during entry, 16 minutes before scheduled landing”[34] at Cape Canaveral.

Charles F. Bolden, Jr. (b. A.D. 1946) amassed 28 days, 8 hours, and 37 minutes in space, participating in STS-61-C (January 12-18, 1986 aboard Columbia), STS-31 (April 24-29, A.D. 1990 aboard Discovery), STS-45 (March 24-April 2, A.D. 1992 aboard Atlantis as the first African-American mission commander), and STS-60 (February 3-11, A.D. 1994 aboard Discovery).

Robert L. Curbeam, Jr. (b. A.D. 1962) amassed 24 days, 17 hours, and 49 minutes in space, participating in STS-85 (August 7-19, A.D. 1997 aboard Discovery) and STS-98 (February 7-20, 2001 aboard Atlantis).

Col. Frederick D. Gregory (b. A.D. 1941) amassed 18 days, 23 hours, and 4 minutes in space, participating in STS-51-B (April 29-May 6, A.D. 1985 aboard Challenger), STS-33 (November 22-27, A.D. 1989 aboard Discovery), and STS-44 (November 24-December 1, A.D. 1991 aboard Atlantis).

Ronald E. McNair, Ph.D. (A.D. 1950-A.D. 1986) amassed 7 days, 23 hours, and 15 minutes in space during STS-41-B (February 3-11, A.D. 1984 aboard Challenger). Tragically Dr. McNair perished along with the rest of the Challenger crew when the space shuttle exploded minutes after launch on January 28, A.D. 1986 for the STS-51-L mission.

Stephanie D. Wilson (b. A.D. 1966) who to date has amassed 12 days, 18 hours, and 36 minutes in space (STS-121 – July 4-17, A.D. 2006 aboard Discovery).

Based on the growing roll of African-American astronauts, which likely will include Joan Higginbotham (b. A.D. 1964) who is slated for launch this fall, the efforts of Dr. Beth A. Brown, a pioneering African-American astrophysicist, the creation of a “National Astrophysics and Space Science Programme” in South Africa consisting of a collaboration among the country’s “universities and research institutes [that focuses on] honors and masters students [to create a new generation of space scientists][35], and the A.D. 2005 debut of the 11-meter-wide South African Large Telescope (SALT) at Sutherland, “the Southern Hemisphere’s largest and most advanced telescope”[36] the black space experience can only grow richer as the future remains bright like the Earth’s shining star, the Sun.

______________________________

Endnotes:

[1] Ancient Astronomy In Africa. Fall 1998. 18 July 2006. http://hej3.as.utexas.edu/~www/wheel/africa/index.html

[2] Jarita Holbrook. African Astronomy. Center for Archaeoastronomy. June 1998. 18 July 2006. http://www.wam.umd.edu/~tlaloc/archastro/ae28.html

[3] Africans studied astronomy in medieval times. The Royal Society. 30 January 2006. 18 July 2006. http://www.royalsoc.ac.uk/news/asp?year=&id=4117&printer=1

[4] Kathy Nellis. Trip to the stars rooted in history. CNN.com. 24 February 1996. 18 July 2006. http://www.cnn.com/US/9602/black_astronaut/index.html

[5] M. Panther. Africans Studied Astronomy in Medieval Times. 26 February 2006. 18 July 2006. http://www.assatashakur.org/forum/archive/index.php/t-15793.html

[6] Jarita Holbrook. African Astronomy. Center for Archaeoastronomy. June 1998. 18 July 2006. http://www.wam.umd.edu/~tlaloc/archastro/ae28.html

[7] Curtis Abraham. Astronomy and the legacy of apartheid. New Scientist.com. 15 January 2005. 18 July 2006. http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=mg18524822.000&print=true

[8] Jarita Holbrook. African Astronomy. Center for Archaeoastronomy. June 1998. 18 July 2006. http://www.wam.umd.edu/~tlaloc/archastro/ae28.html

[9] Ngas. Cultural Astronomy. 18 July 2006. http://ecuip.lib.uchicago.edu/diglib/science/cultural_astronomy/cultures_ngas-1.html

[10] Namouratunga II. Archaeoastronomy Africa. 18 July 2006. http://library.thinkquest.org/C0118421/africakenya.html

[11] M. Panther. Africans Studied Astronomy in Medieval Times. 26 February 2006. 18 July 2006. http://www.assatashakur.org/forum/archive/index.php/t-15793.html

[12] A.F. Veni. Tropical archeoastronomy. Science 213. 1981.

[13] Laurence R. Doyle and Edward W. Frank. Astronomy of Africa. Encyclopedia of the History of Science, Technology and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures. 18 July 2006. http://www.tusker.com/Archaeo/art.encyclo.htm

[14] Jarita Holbrook. African Astronomy. Center for Archaeoastronomy. June 1998. 18 July 2006. http://www.wam.umd.edu/~tlaloc/archastro/ae28.html

[15] Laurence R. Doyle and Edward W. Frank. Astronomy of Africa. Encyclopedia of the History of Science, Technology and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures. 18 July 2006. http://www.tusker.com/Archaeo/art.encyclo.htm

[16] M. Panther. Africans Studied Astronomy in Medieval Times. 26 February 2006. 18 July 2006. http://www.assatashakur.org/forum/archive/index.php/t-15793.html

[17] Jarita Holbrook. African Astronomy. Center for Archaeoastronomy. June 1998. 18 July 2006. http://www.wam.umd.edu/~tlaloc/archastro/ae28.html

[18] Curtis Abraham. Astronomy and the legacy of apartheid. New Scientist.com. 15 January 2005. 18 July 2006. http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=mg18524822.000&print=true

[19] John Reader. Africa: A Biography of the Continent. Vintage Books: New York. 1997. 286.

[20] WWII flier paved way for black astronauts. News 4. 10 July 2006. http://kvoa.com/global/story.asp?s=5130972&ClientType=Printable

[21] Robert Henry Lawrence, Jr. Biography. NASA and About, Inc. 2006. 18 July 2006. http://space.about.com/cs/deceasedastronaut/a/rhlawrencebio.htm

[22] Robert Henry Lawrence, Jr. Wikipedia.com. 3 July 2006. 18 July 2006. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Henry_Lawrence_Jr

[23] Arnaldo Tamayo Méndez. Wikipedia.com. 4 July 2006. 18 July 2006. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arnaldo_Tamayo_Mendez

[24] Nick Greene. Guion “Guy” Bluford – NASA Astronaut. About, Inc. 2006. 18 July 2006. http://space.about.com/cs/formerastronauts/a/guionbluford.htm

[25] Mae Jemison. Wikipedia.com. 28 June 2006. 18 July 2006. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mae_Jemison

[26] Marilyn Marshall. Child of the ‘60s set to become first Black woman in space. Gale Group. 2004. 18 July 2006. http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1077/is_n10_v44/ai_7804625/print

[27] First African-American To Walk In Space Speaks In Palestine. KLTV.com. 18 January 2005. 21 July 2006. http://afgen.com/bernard_harris.html

[28] 1997 Honorees – Bernard A. Harris, Jr., M.D. Dominion. 2006. 21 July 2006. http://www.dom.com/about/education/strong/1997/bernardharris.jsp

[29] First African-American To Walk In Space Speaks In Palestine. KLTV.com. 18 January 2005. 21 July 2006. http://afgen.com/bernard_harris.html

[30] Nick Greene. Dr. Bernard Harris, Jr., Biography. About, Inc. 2006. http://space.about.com/od/foremrastronauts/a/bernardharris.htm

[31] 1997 Honorees – Bernard A. Harris, Jr., M.D. Dominion. 2006. 21 July 2006. http://www.dom.com/about/education/strong/1997/bernardharris.jsp

[32] Nick Greene. Dr. Bernard Harris, Jr., Biography. About, Inc. 2006. http://space.about.com/od/foremrastronauts/a/bernardharris.htm

[33] Nick Greene. Dr. Bernard Harris, Jr., Biography. About, Inc. 2006. http://space.about.com/od/foremrastronauts/a/bernardharris.htm

[34] Michael Phillip Anderson. Wikipedia.com. 3 Julye 2006. 18 July 2006. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_P._Anderson

[35] Space science programme takes off. Science in Africa. May 2003. 18 July 2006. http://www.scienceinafrica.co.za/2003/may/stars.htm

[36] George Faraday. South Africa to Build Largest Telescope South of the Equator. Africa News Service. 8 July 1998. 21 July 2006. http://allafrica.com/stories/printable/200101080369.html

Additional Sources:

Bail Davidson. The Lost Cities of Africa. Little, Brown and Company. USA. 1959.

Bernard A. Harris, Jr. Wikipedia.com. 11 May 2006. 18 July 2006. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernard_Harris

Charles F. Bolden, Jr. Wikipedia.com. 4 July 2006. 21 July 2006. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_F._Bolden

Frederick D. Gregory. Wikipedia.com. 8 June 2006. 18 July 2006. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Gregory

Guion Bluford. Wikipedia.com. 15 June 2006. 18 July 2006. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guion_Bluford

Nick Greene. Dr. Mae C. Jamison. About, Inc. 2006. http://space.about.com/cs/formerastronauts/a/jemisonbio.htm

Nick Greene. Ronald E. McNair (Ph.D.). About, Inc. 2006. http://space.about.com/cs/deceasedastronaut/a/ronmcnair.htm

Robert Curbeam. Wikipedia.com. 21 June 2006. 18 July 2006. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Curbeam

Ronald McNair. Wikipedia.com. 6 July 2006. 18 July 2006. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ronald_McNair

South African Large Telescope Makes Its Debut. Physorg.com. 1 September 2005. 21 July 2006. http://www.physorg.com/news6159.html

Stephanie Wilson. Wikipedia.com. 18 July 2006. 18 July 2006. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephanie_Wilson

William Sutherland is a published poet and writer. He is the author of three books, "Poetry, Prayers & Haiku" (1999), "Russian Spring" (2003) and "Aaliyah Remembered: Her Life & The Person behind the Mystique" (2005) and has been published in poetry anthologies around the world.

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http://www.ezinearticles.com/?The-Black-Space-Experience&id=249108

Some Hubble Space Telescope History

By Jarrod Roby

The Hubble Space Telescope, named after Edwin Hubble, was built by NASA, and launched into space in 1990. At the time, astronomers the world over expected great discoveries to be made. With this magnificent telescope's help, we could see further into space than ever before.

Why were people so thrilled by Hubble?

With a piece of technology like the Hubble Telescope, we could get a much better look into outer space and learn more about the universe. We could find new black holes, and look back billions of years in time to the very beginnings of our universe.

The Hubble Telescope today

Today, this wonderful piece of equipment has more than met our expectations. It brings us awe inspiring images, and aids us in making new discoveries all the time. With the Hubble's help, we now have definitive proof that dark matter, or energy, is simply matter that we can't see with the naked eye.

Did you know it's estimated that only about ten percent of the Universe is visible?

So, why is the Hubble so important? Well, before the Hubble was launched into space, scientists and astronomers could only learn about space by studying starlight, and the only pictures they had were taken here on earth.

A major step forward in the field of Astronomy

With the help of this huge reflective telescope, discoveries are made every day, and we get spectacular images of space that will take your breath away.

A picture is worth a thousand words

The pictures taken by the Hubble are not your average pictures. They are 20 times larger than pictures taken with a digital camera. Even at that size, they are crystal clear and full of color.

Some Hubble history

Construction of the Hubble commenced in 1977 and was finished in 1985. 5 years later, on April 25, 1990 Hubble was launched into space. the first pictures weren't so great. NASA later discovered why. The giant mirror in Hubble was too flat on one edge.

In 1993, a camera was added to Hubble, and this corrected the problem.

In 1997, Hubble was serviced a second time and older instruments were replaced.

In October 1997, NASA extended the telescope's operations through the year 2010.

So it seems as if we have much to discover about the world of Astronomy and space, because this wonderful telescope will continue bringing us images for years to come.

Astronomy For Kids Online explores the Solar System and the Milky Way Galaxy. You'll learn about the Big Bang Theory and find out about the history of Astronomy. Of course you can also look at some Hubble Telescope pictures if you want to.

Source

http://www.ezinearticles.com/?Some-Hubble-Space-Telescope-History&id=534380

The Best Sights For Astronomy

By Anne Noonan

What are the best sights for astronomy? That's hard to say. There is so much out there that the determination of what are the best sights for astronomy probably requires you to do some advance study and decide for yourself what you'd like to learn about.

There are a couple of very helpful books that can guide you through a determination of what are the best views for astronomy.

A new beginner or intermediate handbook for stargazers is the "Guide to Stars and Planets" by Patrick Moore. This accomplished astronomer has concisely gathered reference information on the night sky that details the best views for astronomy. It looks at the moon as well as the various constellations. You'll find charts, photographs and maps that have been garnered through study with earth bound and space telescopes. The best areas for astronomy are laid out in this book as well as some guidance on how you're going to take a look at the best views for astronomy yourself.

Here you'll find guidance on what telescope to buy, how to set up an observatory for yourself as home and how to become a good amateur astronomer. Details about the perfect sights for astronomy include information on the moon, our sun, the various planets, the debris found in the solar system, a myriad number of stars, the various galaxies we know about, the constellations, and comets, asteroids, meteors and eclipses that humans have noted and photographed in the past.

The best sights for astronomy have been highlighted in the book, including important features in the moon and the stars we've studied extensively.

Anne Noonan makes it quick and easy to find the best telescope Read expert information here.

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Astronomy Village - The Astronomers' Mecca

By Iuri Tarabanov

Sharon, the State of Georgia

The most important rule at this remote vacation spot is simple: no white light. Even a sliver of the pupil-contracting rays coming from the window of a cabin at Deerlick Astronomy Village could ruin a neighbor's view of the Milky Way. The 39 hectares village situated in the outskirts of Taliaferro County in Georgia s designed for amateur stargazers looking for total darkness and wide-open spaces to build weekend homes.

"It's like a lake house for geeks," said Chris Hetlage, co-founder of the village, as he tromped through the darkness toward his observatory. He believes that such type of rest has a bright future. There are only two other similar communities nationwide - one in Florida and one in Arizona - and he said the demand for dark skies is soaring as suburban sprawl produces more light pollution.

Star lovers have snatched up all of the 17 plots less than two years ago. The business plan aimed for those plots to sell in seven years.

The grassy field lined with trees holds six homes and nine observatories, which look like tiny cabins with retractable roofs.

Next to the houses is a 4-hectare hilltop observation field where stargazers who don't want to buy property can pitch a tent and scan the sky for free. The field is the new home of the Atlanta Astronomy Club's telescope and the 300-member group's annual stargazing festival.

All those who live here are very careful with the white light; houses emit only soft red light. Windows must be lined with light-blocking materials to prevent rays from escaping.

Drivers can only use their parking lights at night. Star gazers who wander about the property after dark use flashlights with red bulbs.

Five years ago, Hetlage and friend Donovan Conrad began hunting for small plots of land where they could build their personal observatories. The two are amateur astrophotographers who take hundreds of frames with high-powered cameras attached to telescopes and layer them on a computer to create images of galaxies 10,000 light years away.

On finding an appropriate place, they bought the surrounding lands and decided to build an astronomy village here. They named the village Deerlick after a cluster of galaxies called the Deer Lick Group.

The first few years these two men accompanied by a small group of initiators spend all their spare time here, clearing the land for the development, installing electrical equipment and water-supply. Conrad resorted to the help of three his sons whom he also moved here.

"The place is visited by remarkable people, the sky is wonderful here", says Dave Lasco who visits his observatory three to four times a year. "It's just a unique community".

Iuri Tarabanov writes about interesting travel experiences. His Travel Services site is http://www.travelime.com

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http://www.ezinearticles.com/?Astronomy-Village---The-Astronomers-Mecca&id=816293

Top Reasons to Join an Astronomy Club

By Doug Garrett

Astronomy clubs offer several positive benefits for the backyard (or professional) astronomer. While it is human nature to be solitary, there are a great many benefits to joining a group or club. This may not be an easy task for some folks because, in reality, we're sure many of our problems in life stem from "other people". Well, that is true sometimes, but when we take an honest look at ourselves, we should quickly realize that we're not perfect and being around others of like interest has a very positive effect on learning and experience. Another tremendous benefit is developing friendships - imagine that! Let's take a look at several benefits to joining an astronomy club.

The first is access to great observing locations. This is a direct result of the networking function of the club - the ability to scout a large area of possible observing platforms. If the membership is large enough, you can bet that there will be a surplus of great places the members go to regularly that you may not have even know existed. Maybe a member has a family member that owns a farm within an hour's drive. Not only can you find an open pasture, you might even get fresh, hot coffee or hot chocolate to boot!

The second is being around more experienced astronomers. There is little argument to the fact that when you are around others who are more experienced than you are, you're own skills will rise to the occasion. This principle is true for most human endeavors, whether raising children, playing sports, or looking for Venus. Just one note here - to get the most out of this, you must be humble and teachable. Acknowledge that you don't know everything and be willing to take criticism, no matter how it is offered. Some people are just plain cranky and even their advice can be rudely delivered, but do yourself a favor and find the diamond in that rough.

The third is having access to OPE - "Other People's Equipment". Believe it or not, the average amateur astronomer has more than one telescope. Some are die-hard fans of one brand or another. You name it, Meade, Celestron, Zhumell, Vixen, and others, they all have their loyal customer base. If you are in the market for your first (or third!) telescope, there is nothing more valuable that hands-on experience with different brands and models offered by non interested parties that will give you honest advice and recommendations.

Joining an astronomy club has a multitude of benefits for the new or experienced astronomer. My advice is to visit a few different clubs before you settle on membership in any one club. Make sure the club has like-minded members. If you are a hard-core stargazer, find one that is committed to observing together on a regular basis. Determine what is important to you and find out what benefits you may be able to bring to the club. I know you'll be the better astronomer for it.

Doug Garrett is a writer for a Celestron Telescope Review site where you can find a review of the top selling Celestron 9.25 telescopes, the premium Celestron NexStar telescope series, and others. If you are looking to compare the latest offerings in telescope technology, please visit best-telescope-reviews.com right now.

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Astronomy

By Jonathon Hardcastle

The stars have always been a fascinating subject. Perhaps that's one reason why astronomy is so popular these days.

In essence, Astronomy isn't just about studying stars, as most people think. It's actually a study of celestial objects, which includes not only stars but also planets, comets and entire galaxies. In fact, Astronomy also studies different phenomena that come from outside of the earth's atmosphere, such as auroras and cosmic background radiation.

In addition, Astronomy, is concerned with a host of other sciences, including physics, evolution, chemistry, how celestial objects move and how the universe was formed and developed. Scientists routinely use Astronomy to test some of the most fundamental theories in physics, such as general relativity. In attempting to explain astronomical phenomena, astronomy joins hands with astrophysics.

Overall, Astronomy is among the oldest sciences known to mankind. Records show that there were astronomers dating back to the days of ancient Greece and India. This is probably where advanced observation techniques originated. In addition, the scientific history of man shows how many amateur astronomers have contributed and played an active role in observing and discovering what is referred to as transient phenomena.

With the dawn of the 20th century, Astronomy was divided into two sciences. These are observational astronomy and theoretical astrophysics. The first one is concerned with getting data and this involves building and maintaining a host of different instruments as well as processing the results of the data it acquires. There are some who refer to this branch of science as "astrometry" or simply as "astronomy". On the other hand, theoretical astrophysics has to do with ascertaining the implications that can be observed through a computer or through analytical models.

There are those who confuse modern astronomy with astrology but they are two very different things. Astrology revolves around a belief system that presupposes that the different positions of celestial objects have a direct bearing on human affairs. In a nutshell, it is fortune telling with the aid of the stars. Astronomy and astrology obviously share the same common origins but most scientists and other knowledgeable observers know that both fields are clearly distinct.

Jonathon Hardcastle writes articles on many topics including Science, Education, and Weather

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http://www.ezinearticles.com/?Astronomy&id=345650

How to Be an Astronomer

By Jarrod Roby

So, you have an interest in astronomy and space and you think you want to be an astronomer. This article will show you the steps you have to take in order to turn your amateur astronomy hobby into the career of a professional astronomer.

What is an astronomer and what do they do?

This may seem like a basic question, but it’s a good place to start. Just because you have an interest in astronomy doesn’t necessarily mean that becoming a professional astronomer is right for you.

An astronomer is a scientist who spends a great deal of time studying and observing the behavior of stars, planets, and galaxies as well as lots of other celestial objects. To be an astronomer, a person must earn a doctorate degree and have extensive knowledge of mathematics, computer science, and physics.

Even if you meet these difficult standards and get such an education, your journey toward becoming a professional astronomer is only half over. The competition for jobs in the field of astronomy is extremely fierce.

What you need to do to get started

Try to learn as much as you can about the field of astronomy. The library is a great place to find all sorts of information on the topic of astronomy. More importantly though, it’s absolutely free.

Another thing you should do is find out if there is an amateur astronomy club in your local area. Meeting other people who are knowledgeable about astronomy is a great way to learn things about astronomy that you just can’t learn from a book.

If there is an astronomy observatory near you, then pay them a visit. Observatories are another fantastic way to introduce yourself to the field of astronomy. You may even be able to speak with a professional astronomer at an observatory. There is no better way to research a career field than by talking to someone who is already working in that field.

Lay the groundwork in high school

Try to take as many mathematics and science courses as you can while you’re in high school. You should complete pre-calculus, chemistry, and physics by the time you graduate.

Moving on to college

Once you are accepted into a college, you should choose physics or astronomy as your major and try to carry at least a 3.0 grade point average. A B average is is the minimum GPA accepted by many graduate astronomy programs, so you’ll want to get the highest grades you possibly can while you’re an undergraduate.

Excellent writing skills

Another area to make sure you’re highly proficient in is writing. As an astronomer, you’ll write many articles related to astronomy and space. If you want them to be published in respected publications, the quality of your writing has to be top notch.

Astronomy For Kids Online explores the Solar System and the Milky Way Galaxy. You'll learn about the Big Bang Theory and find out about the history of Astronomy. Of course you can also look at some Hubble Telescope pictures if you want to.

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http://www.ezinearticles.com/?How-to-Be-an-Astronomer&id=693007

Astronomy Real Star Power

By Chris Campbell

Astronomy has to be one the most humbling of all subjects to study. Just the thought of our universe, being like a grain of sand in a sandy shore of universes, is enough to make me want to crawl back under the sheets. Everything just seems so immense, andbeyond comprehension. Where does it end? Is it possible to get to the end of space? Astronomy tries to come up those answers. Like any science, Astronomy asks far more questions then it can answer. But, that's part of what makes it so fascinating. Ever since the first adventurer wondered what was beyond the nexthorizon, humans have been trying to expand their boundaries. Astronomy is carrying on that fine tradition. It's a pretty big horizon, and maybe one that doesn't end? Who knows, only astronomers of the future will be able to answer that question.

Astronomy Begins At Home

We don't have to go that far with astronomy, to be truly fascinated. Our own friendly sun has some pretty interesting things going on. Did you know, that the sun moves at a rate of 12 miles per second. That's 720 miles per minute, or 43,200 miles per hour. Good thing it's got a big gas tank huh? And it's moving towards the constellation Hercules. Better get out of the way Herc! Another interesting astronomy tidbit here. I bet you thought the sun was about the hottest thing around. Well, not even close. The surface of the sun is hot, at about 10,000 degreesfarenheit . But, there is something here on earth that is 3 times hotter. Care to guess? Some people have even been touched by it, and lived to tell the story. Lightening is 30,000 degreesfarenheit . Cool huh? One more startling sun fact. There are 92 natural elements on earth. You remember that periodic table of elements from high school science, those elements. Well, two thirds of those elements have been identified in the sun. Not sure who checked, but they are there. And, scientists believe that the other third are most likely in the sun as well. Hard to believe our home planet full of water could be so closely related to that big fiery ball of gas. Astronomy spins a pretty fascinating tale.

Future Worlds

Like those adventurers who came before us and were drawn to venture beyond their horizon. I believe that star gazers of today will be our future boundary busters. It may have been a while since people have walked on the moon. But it's just a question of time. Human nature justdoesn't allow us to settle for what we have. We're always looking beyond. And astronomy is building that map, and trying to help break down those boundaries of today. It's not only fascinating to imagine where we will go next, but essential to our survival. We are spending the resources of this planet at an alarming rate, and sooner before later things will run out. The planet will survive of course, but we may not. It is time to venture out, and find another planet like earth. Not just for the sake of discovery, but because we need to. Soon. Hopefully, we will arrive there smarter, and a little more careful. In the mean time, astronomy is paving the path for ours and future generations to follow.

For more on astronomy visit astronomyfunonline.com or read other astronomy articles at foolishmumbles.com/category/astronomy

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http://www.ezinearticles.com/?Astronomy-Real-Star-Power&id=349055

Astronomy for Children - Teaching Children through Astronomy

By Susan Shaw

Astronomy is perhaps the best science for teaching children. Astronomy-themed learning projects can help teach children not only astronomy but many subjects--reading, writing, math, history, geometry, chemistry, art, photography, etc. Almost any area of knowledge can be integrated into a children's astronomy class or workshop. Children are not only learning the fascinating subject of astronomy that has engaged children of all ages for centuries--the solar system, the planets, the stars, the nebula, the comets, the galaxies, the spaceships and space marvels, the telescopes--but astronomy can be the coordinating art and science.

There are many children's astronomy websites online and also books that include experimental projects, data research projects, telescope projects (including "make your own telescope"). Astronomy can also teach children how to think and analyze. Writing can be taught via keeping astronomy journals.

Recommended websites for children online are:

Kids Astronomy

http://www.kidsastronomy.com

StarChild: A Learning Center for Young Astronomers
http://starchild.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/StarChild/StarChild.html

Other children's astronomy websites can be easily found via your favorite search engine. Astronomy-oriented toys, "space toys" and science kits are available. Also calendars, posters, prints. Children can be encouraged to design their own posters and art prints, their own "astrographics." Astronomy books and software may be found at Amazon.com and The Astronomy Store, http://www.astronomystore.zoomshare.com. There are also telescope stores that have novice telescopes for young astronomers.

As for astronomy software, there are a wide range of astronomy software which can be educational. Some of this software is especially designed for children, such as Sesame Street Ernie's Adventures in Space and Zoom Astronomy--Enchanted Learning Software. Astronomy news can also be found online.

Dover Publisher sells solar system stickers, sun, moon, and stars stickers and easy to do experiments, including "science for children" coloring books. Again, children can be encouraged to create their own stickers, coloring books, and computer graphics and astronomy and space clip art.

So when teaching children art, writing, math or any subject, think astronomy, which has engaged children of all ages for ages.

Susan Shaw is a freelance writer of web content on the subjects of film, business, and science. She is an affiliate of The Book Store/The Science Library & The Astronomy Library, http://thebookstore.vstoremarket.com/index.htm (For The Science Library, put "Science" in their search engine. For The Astronomy Library, put "Astronomy" in their search engine.)

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